Table 3 Load protocols
From: Porcine Functional Spine Unit in orthopedic research, a systematic scoping review of the methodology
Study | Pre-load | Compression | Flexion | Extension | Lateral bending | Rotation | Shear | Combined | Angle | Rate | Duration | Load Magnitude | Mechanical properties reported |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 1 mm | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | No | Na | na | 10 s | na | Disc pressure 0.62 MPa |
2 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | No | Yes | Na | 3000 N/s | To failure | na | Failure load 3.8–6.5 kN |
3 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | No | No | Yes | Na | 0.5°/s | 6000 cycles | Axial 1472 N | na |
4 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | Na | 1000 N/s, 0.5 Hz | Ramp, 1000 cycles | Axial 1000 N | Failure load 10.8 kN |
5 | na | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | 17° flex 17° ext | 1 mm/s | Ramp | na | Failure load 1.8 kN |
6 | na | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | 11° flex 12° ext | 1 mm/s | Ramp | na | Failure load 17.7 kN axial, 7.6 kN flex 2.9 kN ext |
7 | 260 N/ 15 min | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | Na | 45°/s 1 Hz | Max 86,400 cycles | Axial 260/867/1472 N | # cycles to disc failure |
8 | na | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | Yes | 5° flex 5° ext | 0.07 Hz | 1500 cycles | na | Hysteresis Bending moment 3–3.9 Nm |
9 | na | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | No | Na | 40 N/s | Ramp | Axial 500 N | Disc pressure Max 1.6 MPa |
10 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | 16° flex 16° ext | 0.5°/s | Max 10,000 cycles | 1500 N | Foramina pressure 6 kPa |
11 | 0, 200, 400 N | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Flex/ext/rot 0.8° lateral 1° | Axial 0.2 mm AP/Lat 0.3 mm | na | Axial 0, 200, 400 N | 6 DF Stiffness Linear 0.5–3.5 kN/mm Rotational 2–10 Nm/° |
12 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | 4.2° flex 6.1° ext | 5 Hz | 120 min Static | 1500 N ± 1250 N Static 1500 N | Stiffness Pre 2.8–2.9 kN/mm Post 2.9–3.0 kN/mm |
13 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | No | na | 5 Hz | 120 min Static | 1400 N ± 140 N Static 1400 N | Modulus 0.3–3.4 MPa Strain 1.3–2.2 |
14 | 300 N/ 30 min 1 KN/ 180 min | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | No | Yes | 21° | 0.5°/s 3000 N/s | To failure | na | Failure load 5.6–12.1 kN |
15 | 500 N/ 30 min | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | 4° flex. ext. lat | 0.1 Hz | 60 min | Axial 500 N | Stiffness Matrix 6 DF |
16 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | Yes | Yes | 7.9° flex 4.4° ext | 0.5°/s, 0.05 mm/s | na | 15, 30, 45 and 60% of predicted axial failure load | Shear Force 2.2–2.7 kN Shear Stiffness 0.7–1.1 kN/mm |
17 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | Yes | Yes | na | 0.5°/s 1 Hz | Max 21,600 cycles | Axial 300 N | Shear failure Morphology/Site |
18 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | Yes | Yes | 15° flex 3.4° ext | 0.5°/s 0.2 mm/s | 5 cycles | Axial 300 N Shear ± 400 N | Shear Stiffness NZ 58–85 N/mm |
19 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | Yes | Yes | na | 0.15 mm/s | Ramp | Axial 1546 N ± 22 N | Shear Force 1.9–2.5 kN |
20 | 500 N | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | No | Yes | na | na | 30 s | Axial 0,5, 1,0, 1,5 Nm | Vertebral rotation 0.05–1.8° |
21 | na | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | No | na | 5 mm/min | Ramp | na | Failure load 7.9 kN |
22 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | No | na | 0.5 Hz | Max 12 h | 50, 70, 90% of calc strength | Fatigue # cycles to failure |
23 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | No | Yes | na | 0.5 Hz | Max 12 h | 10, 30, 50, 70, 90% of calc strength | Fatigue # cycles to failure Injury site |
24 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | No | na | 3000 N/s | Ramp | na | Failure strength 10.5 kN |
25 | na | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | Yes | 4° flex 4° lat | 1°/s | Step | 200–800 N | IVD stress distribution 288–1611 kPa |
26 | 260 N/ 15 min | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | 15° flex 2° ext | 1 Hz | Max 14,400 cycles | Axial 1472 N | Fatigue Failure Injury site |
27 | na | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | No | na | 3 Hz, 5 mm/min | 20,000 cycles Ramp | 0–1000 N | Failure load 8.3 kN |
28 | na | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | Yes | na | 0.5 Hz | 1500 cycles | Axial 1600 N | Shear strength 1.0–2.4 kN |
29 | na | Yes | No | No | No | No | Yes | Yes | na | 0.1 mm/s | ramp | Axial 1600 N | Shear strength 1.6–2.1 kN |
30 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | 17° flex 6° ext | 0.5 Hz | 7000 cycles | Axial 1472 N | Disc herniation Pathway |
31 | na | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | No | Yes | 5° | na | na | Axial 440–1123 N | Flexion stiffness 70–300 Nm/rad |
32 | na | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | na | na | na | na | Differences in annular mechanical properties in pressurized and un-pressurized discs |
33 | na | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | na | na | na | na | Fracturing of end-plate as a result of injecting hydraulic solution into IVD |
34 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | na | 1 Hz | 6000 cycles | 1260–1540 N | Loss in disc height as a result of compression |
35 | 500 N/ 3 h | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | 4° | na | na | na | Obtaining the load–displacement properties of a motion-segment under "physiological conditions" |
36 | 0, 200, 400 N | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | 2° | na | 87 s | na | Increased preload causes increased stiffness |
37 | na | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | No | No | na | na | 1 h | 340 N | Effects of torsion on IVD stress |
38 | 0.001 MPa (IVDP)/ 15 min | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | No | na | na | 3 cycles | 2,0 MPa (IVDP) | Deformation time-depenency of different FSU-parts under compression |
39 | 20 N/ 15 min | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | No | na | na | 3 cycles | Avg 1694 N | IVD height loss after compression |
40 | na | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | na | 1.5°/s | 7 h | 250 N | Neutral zone stiffness after compression |
41 | na | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | No | Yes | na | na | na | 340 N | IVD height loss after compression |
42 | 300 N/ 30 min | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | No | na | na | 1 h | 1391 N | IVD fluid dynamic during compression |
43 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | na | 0.5 Hz | 12 h max | na | Fatigue test |
44 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | No | na | 0.5 Hz | 10,800 cycles max | 8,3 N/ sec max | Fatigue test |
45 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | na | 0.5°/s | 3 cycles/ na | 10 N, 300 N, 600 N and 1200 N | IVD AF bulge change after compression |
46 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | na | 0.5°/s | na | 15% of predicted UCT | Validation of ultrasound to measure mechanical properties during experimentation |
47 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | Yes | Yes | na | 0.5°/s | na | 300 N, 400 N | Facet joint capsule strain durin compression and flexion/extension |
48 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | 4.3° flex and 5.1° ext | 0.5°/s | 120 min | 1500 N ± 1200 N | IVD height loss, dynamic compressive stiffness |
49 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | Yes | Yes | na | 1 mm/s, 4 mm/s, 6 mm/s | To failure | 300 N, 1600 N | Ultimate anterior shear force, ultimate displacement, average stiffness and energy to failure |
50 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | na | 0.5°/s | 5000 cycles | 1500 N | Interfacet spacing |
51 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | na | 5, 10, 30 cycles/min | 5000 cycles | 10%, 20% and 40% of UCT | IVD height loss and bulging |
52 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | 18.3° | 45°/s 1 Hz | 3600 cycles | 1500 N | Axial deformation, IVD pressure change, IVD height change |
53 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | na | 5, 10, 30 cycles/min | 5000 cycles | 10%, 20% and 40% of UCT | Damage patterns |
54 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | na | 0.5°/s | 5 cycles | 1472 N | Facet-joint fracturing, stiffness |
55 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | 13.23° flex and 6.23° ext | 0.5°/s | 7000 cycles | 1500 N | IVD herniation |
56 | na | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | No | na | 1700–2500 N/s | To failure | 1700–2500 N | Mean ultimate force at failure |
57 | na | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | 9–15° | 1 Hz | 20,000 cycles/ 5.5 h | 700 N | Damage patterns on MRI and in histological slices |
58 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | No | na | na | Max 85,000 cycles | 1500 N | Mean failure load |
59 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | 14.8° flex and 4.3° ext | na | 10,000 cycles | 1500 N | Nucles pulposus migration with flex/ext + compression vs only compression |
60 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | na | na | 8000 + 8000 cycles | 1500 N | Angular stiffness |
61 | 300 N | Yes | No | No | No | No | Yes | No | na | 2 Hz | 120 min | 300 N, 500 N, 600 N, 800 N, 1500 N | Degree of spondylolisthesis and spondylolysis |
62 | 260 N/ 879 s | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | na | 0.5°/s, 45°/s and 1 Hz | na | 1472 N | Disc height loss, endplate fracture |
63 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | 12° flex and 6°ext | 1 Hz | Max 10,000 cycles | 1500 N | Disc herniation |
64 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | No | No | No | No | Yes | No | na | 100 N/s | To failure | 1500 N | Ultimate shear load at failure, deformation at failure, stiffness, energy absorbed |
65 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | No | Yes | 10° | 100 N/s, 10,810 N/s | To failure | Maximum reported 2345 N | Ultimate load, deformation, energy, stiffness |
66 | na | Yes | No | No | No | No | Yes | No | na | na | na | na | Damage patterns on MRI and in histological slices |
67 | 500 N/ 15 min | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | na | 0.5–5°/s | na | Maximum 500 N | Stiffness |
68 | 500 N/ 3 h | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | na | 0,1 Hz, 0,5 Hz | na | 500 N | Stiffness Matrix 6 DF |
69 | 300 N/ 15 min | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | na | 0.5°/s | Min 21,600 cycles to failure | 30, 50 and 70% ult compression tolerance | Endplate fatigue failure during cyclic compression loading with variable and consistent peak magnitudes |
70 | na | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | na | na | na | na | Effect of pressure‐induced fracture on mechanical properties of AF |